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INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONCopyright UNIDO 2019. All rights reserved. This working paper represents research in progress and is published for the purpose of sharing knowledge and soliciting comments. The contents and conclusions of this document are considered appropriate for the time of its preparation. They may be modified in the light of further knowledge gained at subsequent stages. Comments regarding the paper should be addressed to the UNIDO Gender Coordinator who can be reached at gender-coordinatorunido. This document has been prepared without formal United Nations editing. The views and opinions expressed are those of the authors and should not be considered as reflecting the official policy or position of UNIDO. UNIDO is not responsible for the results of any actions taken on the basis of this research nor for any errors or omissions. The opinions, designations and material presentations do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNIDO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries, or its economic system or degree of development. Designations such as “developed”, “industrialized” and “developing” are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgment about the stage reached by a particular country or area in the development process.INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSION UNIDO WORKING PAPERINCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSIONAcknowledgements This working paper is produced by the UNIDO Office for Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women with main contributions provided by Dr. Marzia Fontana, Research Associate at the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex. The paper has been prepared under the overall leadership of Fatou Haidara, Managing Director, Directorate of Corporate Management and Operations. Substantive guidance was provided by Hedda hlberger-Femundsenden, Gender Coordinator, Office for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women with inputs from Hoa Lai, Rachel Loper, Luciana Meira, Riccardo Savigliano, Jenny Tang, Priyanka Teeluck, Chiara Valpiana, and Gina Waibel. Comments regarding the paper should be addressed to gender-coordinatorunido. Many valuable comments were gratefully received from Professor Diane Elson, University of Essex, Professor Stephanie Seguino, University of Vermont, and Anuradha Seth, Policy Advisor for Economic Empowerment, UN Women, as well as UNIDO staff, particularly Franz Brugger, Blen Tilahun Demissie, Thouraya Benmokrane, Michele Clara, Sulafa Mdanat, and Cristiano Pasini. Graphic design and layout by Georg Nothdurfter, Gerundium Design. We are particularly thankful to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland for their financial support in producing this paper.INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSION Table of contents List of abbreviations 2 Executive summary 4 1. The gender equality-industrial development nexus 91.1. Inclusive and sustainable industrial development (ISID) and why gender matters 91.2. A two-way relationship 101.2.1. From industrialization to gender relations 131.2.2. From gender relations to industrialization 15 2. Gender patterns in manufacturing employment 202.1. Regional patterns over the last few decades: feminization and defeminization 202.2. Selected country cases 252.3. Gender and ISID-related indicators, data and gaps 37 3. Looking ahead: the new industrial revolution and gender equality 423.1. Emerging trends in industry 423.2. Gender implications: new challenges and opportunities 43 4. Policy lessons for gender-equitable ISID 48References 54Annex 1: Country Profile Statistics Notes 591INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSION List of abbreviations ACET African Centre for Economic Transformation ATC Agreement on Textiles and Clothing EU European Union GDP Gross Domestic Product GTP Growth and Transformation Plan ICT Information and Communication Technology IDR Industrial Development Report IFC International Financial Corporation ILO International Labour Organization IR Industrial Revolution ISDS Institute for Social Development Studies ISID Inclusive and Sustainable Industrial Development KILM Key Indicators of the Labour Market KT Kucera and Tejani LFS Labour Force Survey MENA Middle East and Northern Africa MVA Manufacturing Value Added NGO Non-Governmental Organization NIC Newly industrialized Country OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development QIZ Qualifying Industrial Zone SDG Sustainable Development Goal SME Small and Medium Enterprise SIEO Semi Industrialized Export Oriented SSA Sub-Saharan Africa2 STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics TM Tejani and Millberg TVET Technical Vocational Education and Training UAE United Arab Emirates UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics UN DESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social Development VWEC Vietnam Womens Entrepreneurs Council VWU Vietnam Womens Union WDI World Development Indicators WEF World Economic Forum3INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSION4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Industrialization can significantly contribute to poverty reduction and shared prosperity by promoting structural change, generating employment and facilitating more efficient use of resources. Its benefits however, have not historically been enjoyed equally by all segments of the population. Women are often precluded access to secure and well-paid jobs in manufacturing industries and related service sectors, and their participation in the development of technologies remains limited. Recognizing this, UNIDO is committed to a policy agenda that promotes inclusive and sustainable industrial development (ISID) as well as gender equality. This working paper contributes to the advancement of the twin policy agenda of ISID and gender equality by providing a conceptual framework and a sound empirical base from which to understand the linkages between gender equality and various aspects of industrial development. This is an important first step for identifying policy measures to redress gender-based bottlenecks preventing women in different parts of the world from fully participating in, and benefitting from, industrial development and technological change. In this paper, gender equality means equality in rights, responsibilities, and opportunities. It is about ensuring that the interests and needs of women and men are given equal weight in industrial policy design and implementation. Inclusiveness in this paper is understood in terms of the quality of employment available to both women and men (not just its quantity) as well as in terms of the availability of affordable goods that meet basic needs for all. The paper focuses on social inclusiveness and what forms of industrial development can lay the foundation for economic growth that is gender-equitable and sustained over the long run. The paper is organized in three main chapters. Chapter I develops an analytical structure for thinking about the multiple mechanisms through which gender relations interact with industrialization. Chapter II analyses empirical evidence through the examination of three country case studies. Chapter III explores potential gender implications of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Policy suggestions and recommendations are offered throughout the paper and summarized in its last chapter. Chapter I highlights that there is a two-way interaction between industrial development and gender equality/inequality and spells out the mechanisms involved in this interaction. It identifies three main channels: the employment channel, the consumption channel and the public infrastructure channel. Industrialization and industrial policies are gendered processes because economies are gendered structures, in the sense that both the paid market sphere and the unpaid non-market sphere are characterised by gender inequalities. Basic statistics on gender-based sectoral and occupational segregation, womens under-representation in technical fields, and unequal distributions of unpaid domestic work and care are presented to corroborate this point. Industrial development can reduce gender inequality when it contributes to quality job creation in sectors previously precluded to women, but it can reinforce gender inequalities when industrial expansion is based on increasing jobs for women while at the same time maintaining gender-based sectoral segregation and large gender wage gaps. Industrial development can reduce gender inequalities when it promotes infrastructure and services that facilitate redistribution of responsibilities for care (such as electricity and labour-saving household appliances), but it reinforces gender inequality when it favours diffusion of technologies that further exclude disadvantaged women. Chapter II reviews empirical evidence over the last few decades with the purpose of examining the terms under which women have been included in the industrialization process across regions and countries with different production structures. The analysis largely focuses on gender-differentiated employment effects associated with manufacturing sector development. This is the dimension of the gender-industrialization nexus that can be more easily and systematically documented. There Executive summary5INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: THE GENDER DIMENSION are, however, also data gaps when it comes to documenting gender employment effects. This is particularly true regarding the quality of jobs available to women. When looking at manufacturing employment data from the 1970s through to the 2000s, the first identifiable pattern is feminization in the early stages of industrialization followed by de-feminization in the more advanced stages. Womens participation in manufacturing employment is closely associated with the expansion of a few specific, generally low-tech, sectors. Women are over-represented especially in apparel and textiles, but also in footwear, food processing, and electronics and these patterns of womens representation across manufacturing are similar across countries in any region. Not all the so-called female sectors are labour-intensive (e.g. electronics), and not all labour-intensive sectors are female intensive (e.g. wood and paper). In all of these female sectors, women seem to be preferred as semi-skilled assembly operators, but are largely excluded from higher skills roles. The association of women workers with particular tasks and industries appears very rigid even in the face of significant achievements made by women. This association appears in countries at different levels of industrial development and is attributable to a range of factors, including persistent gender stereotyping and womens lower social and economic status. The three cases of Vietnam, Jordan and Ethiopia represent different geo-economic regions, production structures and industrialization trajectories. They illustrate different circumstances and policy environments surrounding the incorporation of women workers into the industrialization process. In all countries, however, women are included into manufacturing employment mostly as factory workers in the apparel and textiles sectors, although in Vietnam the picture is somewhat more diversified. Chapter II concludes by discussing data gaps and provides suggestions for gender- industrialization specific SDG indicators. These include: female shares of manufacturing employment; measures of gender segregation in employment such as the gender dissimilarity index; and sex-disaggregated indicators on SME survival rates, their key constraints and the extent of technology adoption, among others. Chapter III moves on to the Fourth Industrial revolution -or Industry 4.0-, briefly exploring the potential gender implications of the spread of the new technologies. There is no clear-cut evidence given that the effects are context- specific and depend on a range of factors. Based on past trends and policy lessons from similar experiences, it can be predicted, however, that the disruption in production processes and living standards caused by the Fourth Industrial Revolution will likely bring with it both opportunities and challenges for the promotion of gender equality. For example, technology could change both the costs and nature of public services provision, through gender-sensitive innovations in transportation infrastructure or new monitoring systems for out-patient care by public health care providers. But it could also reinforce, rather than challenge, ideas and expectations about womens and mens roles, for example through the creation of humanoid robots and devices that embody feminine or masculine characteristics, depending on the functions they are built to perform. The final outcome for gender equality and inclusiveness more broadly will ultimately reflect political decisions and possible reconfigurations of social norms, including gender norms. Chapter IV summarises relevant policy recommendations in terms of horizontal/ broad measures and vertical/specific measures. Horizontal measures include promoting gender- aware skill development and training as well as gender-aware upgrading of physical and social infrastructure. Vertical measures include fostering the regular use of gender statistics to inform targeting and paying special attention to the plight of women migrant workers and women micro-entrepreneurs. The main policy lesson to take away is that promoting gender equality within an ISID agenda needs to involve efforts not only directed at strengthening the competitiveness of economic sectors where women already work in significant numbers, but also towards enabling them to participate in new sectors and roles. The inclusion of women in new sectors and occupations previously precluded to them will in turn allow emerging sectors to thrive by making full use of richer and 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY more diverse skill sets. In the early stages of industrialization, growing demand for relatively cheaper female labour due to the expansion of labour-intensive manufacturing might, under certain circumstances, have (limited) positiv
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