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自然资源保护协会电动汽车 . 需求响应 . 可再生能源协同推动低碳发展执行摘要2015年9月Creating the Grid-Connected CarInternational Experiences Using Demand Response with Electric VehiclesJuly 2016AcknowledgementThis report was prepared by the Demand Side Management (DSM) Team for NRDCs China Program. It examines international examples of EV/DR integration with the intention of providing points of reference for policymakers and utility operators interested in developing this concept. We would like to express our gratitude to Professor Han Yanmin of Tongji University and Dr. Zhang Shaodi from Shanghai Electrical Apparatus Research Institute for offering their feedback and suggestions on this report. We would also like to thank several members of NRDCs staff for their support and feedback during the editing process: Max Baumhefner and Luke Tonachel from the Energy and Transportation Team, Christina Swanson from the Science Center, and Maddie Seibert from the Energy and Climate Team. Without the assistance from the above individuals, this publication would not have been possible.Prepared by Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)Authored by: Collin Smith Hyoungmi KimSupported by: Mona Yew Li Yuqi Liu MingmingZhou Xiaozhu Chen Xiao Lucas CacozzaTable of Contents1. Introduction 12. Drivers of EV industry development vary across countries 33. An integrated approach to EV development brings multiple benefits 53.1 Integration of EV and DR to improve grid system efficiency 3.2 Potential to shift EV charging times using DR 3.3 Renewable energy integration potential 4. Cases in the U.S. 124.1 SDG&E Electric Vehicle Grid Pilot Programs 4.2 BMW i ChargeForward Program 4.3 eV2g Project 4.4 Experiences and Lessons Learned 5. Cases in Europe 205.1 FINESCE Project (Ireland) 5.2 BMW Controlled Charging Berlin Pilot (Germany) 5.3 EDISON Project (Denmark) 5.4 Experiences and Lessons Learned 6. Cases in Asia 266.1 Jeju Island Smart Grid Test-bed (South Korea) 6.2 Experiences and Lessons Learned 7. International experience can provide valuable lessons 328. Conclusion 36A Note on Terminology:Demand response (DR) is a technique in which consumer demand for electricity is adjusted in accordance with signals from utility operators in order to maintain stability and improve efficiency on the electricity grid. With electric vehicles (EVs), DR is typically implemented indirectly by providing incentives for EV owners to change their charging times, or directly by utility operators or third-party DR providers managing EV charging remotely using specialized hardware/software. Managing EV charging using either of these methods is often referred to as “vehicle-grid integration” (VGI).Throughout this report, the terms “managed charging,” “VGI,” and EV-DR integration will be used interchangeably to refer to the use of DR to adjust EV charging.Figure 1: Impact of EVs on Californias distribution system 6Figure 2: Impact of ToU rates on load shifting 8Figure 3: EV charging responses to different pricing methods 9Figure 4: Reduction of renewable energy oversupply using DSM with EVs in Germany and California 11Figure 5: Duck curve: Switching EV charging times to “belly” of the duck 13Figure 6: EV Charging in EDISON project: constant pricing, variable pricing, and Fleet Operator managed 24Figure 7: Koreas energy mix for primary consumption, 2012 26Figure 8: Location of Jeju 27Figure 9: Wind map of Jeju Island 27Figure 10: EVs and charging facilities in Korea as of December 2014 30List of FiguresList of TablesTable 1: Five Focus Areas of Jeju Smart Grid Test-Bed 29Table 2: Summary Table of International Cases of EV-DR-RE Integration 34List of AbbreviationsCPP = Critical Peak PricingDR = Demand responseDSM = Demand-side managementEV = Electric vehicleE3 = Energy and Environmental Economics, Inc.GHG = Greenhouse gasICT = Information communications technologyIOU = Investor-owned utilityKEPCO = Korea Electric Power CorporationKSGI = Korea Smart Grid InstitutePG&E = Pacific Gas & ElectricPV = PhotovoltaicRPS = Renewable Portfolio StandardsRTP = Real Time PricingSDG&E = San Diego Gas & ElectricT&D = Transmission and DistributionToU = Time of UseUD = University of DelawareVGI = Vehicle-grid integrationV2G = Vehicle-to-gridW2V2G = Wind-to-vehicle-to-gridZEV = Zero Emission VehicleInternational Experiences Using Demand Response with Electric Vehicles 21 International Experiences Using Demand Response with Electric Vehicles1IntroductionEnergy and transportation markets worldwide are facing a structural shift that will fundamentally change the way electricity and mobility are supplied. This transition is at different points of development in different parts of the world, but the trend exists everywhere and shows no signs of reversing. To understand these changes and their implications and opportunities its necessary to look to the areas where they have advanced the furthest.As prices for renewable energy technology plummet and concerns over climate change and other environmental damage push public opinion away from fossil fuels, energy from sources like wind and solar are being added to the grid in increasingly high quantities. Utilities have less control over when these types of variable resources produce electricity than they do with more traditional power generators, meaning that, in order to ensure that supply and demand for energy are matched, the ability for utilities to influence electricity demand becomes more important. As a result, sources of flexible demand technology and appliances that have some flexibility in when they will use electricity are becoming more valuable.In addition, the rising use of distributed renewable energy systems like distributed photovoltaic (PV) solar panels means that a growing number of utility customers are producing electricity on-site. PV solar penetration in markets like Germany and California has already increased dramatically. In some utility service areas in California, distributed solar PVs can already meet over 10% of peak demand,1and in Germany, almost one-third of energy demand can be supplied by solar installations,2over 60% of which are distributed.3A sustained drop in PV panel prices is causing these penetration levels to increase rapidly,4creating a growing potential for the electric utilitys customers to go “off-grid” by generating their own electricity completely from distributed sources.This poses a potential risk for the current business model generally employed by electric utilities, which requires a large customer base to finance the utilities extensive transmission infrastructure. However, a potential solution has already arisen from a parallel revolution in transportation technology: electric vehicles (EVs). EV batteries, impacted by the same economies of scale and focus on technological improvements as solar panels, are getting cheaper, making EVs increasingly competitive against conventional vehicles. Places like Germany, California, and the Netherlands already have fast-growing EV fleets,5,6and the adoption of EVs is expected to grow as battery prices continue to decline, more charging infrastructure is installed, and consumer interest grows. As this happens, utility companies stand to gain by becoming the new suppliers of the input fuel for the transportation industry. Almost 74 million passenger vehicles are forecasted to be sold worldwide in 1. Savenijie, Davide. “How SDG&E is dealing with high penetrations of rooftop solar.” UtilityDIVE. July 25, 2014. Available at bit. ly/1kiWYEu. 2. Del Franco, Mark. “North American Solar Seeks To Learn From Germanys Grid Integration Trials.” Solar Industry. March 12, 2014. Available at bit.ly/1KPzsbt. 3. Trabish, Herman K. “Why Germanys Solar Is Distributed.” Greentech Media. May 29, 2013. Available at bit.ly/1ZweRjj. 4. Ibid at footnote 1.5. Autoblog. “The Worlds Top EV Nations.” July 12, 2015. Available at bit.ly/1ZMpfU2. 6. Electric Vehicle News. “Electric vehicles account for almost 10% of Californian new-car sales.” November 14, 2014. Available at bit.ly/15FMEA7. 2015,7and the portion of this market that utilities can access will only grow as the market penetration of EVs accelerates. Californian utilities are already taking advantage of this development, constructing charging infrastructure and signing up new EV users to augment their customer base.8However, especially savvy utilities see this trend as not only an opportunity to increase revenues and improve utilization of existing assets, but also as a potential resource to help manage their daily electricity load distributions. The large energy demand that makes EVs a great source of revenue also makes them potentially destabilizing forces for the grid. But the flexibility with which they can be charged means that, with the implementation of demand response (DR) techniques, grid-connected EVs can instead be used to balance load distributions, charging at times of low demand to improve grid stability and make use of latent generation potential. More advanced versions of this approach can also be used to absorb variable renewable energy like solar and wind, or use the EVs to feed energy back into the grid to meet spikes in demand.The potential in this approach has attracted the attention of utilities and other stakeholders in a number of different regions and markets, many of whom have already established pilot projects to test its efficacy. In order to prepare this approach for large-scale adoption, these pilot efforts should be expanded to other regions to test the concept in different conditions and electricity markets. This report first provides a literature review on the importance of EV and DR integration and the potential models for adjusting EV demand in accordance with utility needs. It then looks at several pilot projects in the US, Europe, and Asia (South Korea) that employ these models for vehicle-grid integration (VGI). In the final section, a brief summary of key components for these projects is developed, with the intention of providing a reference for those who wish to develop these types of pilot projects in other countries and markets7. Statistica. “Statistics and Facts about the Global Automotive Industry.” Available at bit.ly/1E7jG75. 8. San Diego Gas & Electric. “SDG&E To Install Thousands of Electric Vehicle Charging Stations.” SDG&E Newsroom. January 28, 2016. Available at bit.ly/1WKIhZ2. International Experiences Using Demand Response with Electric Vehicles 43 International Experiences Using Demand Response with Electric VehiclesDrivers of EV industry development vary across countriesMuch of the advancement in electric vehicle development across the world is driven by environmental concerns about the tailpipe emissions from conventional vehicles. This includes not only the smog-causing pollutants that create urban pollution but also the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that contribute to climate change. In Europe, the need to reduce NOxemissions under the 2008 EU Air Quality Directive9provides a driver for cities to push for increased adoption of EVs.10Concerns over climate change are also a critical motivator; the EU has ambitious CO2reduction targets for vehicles, aiming for a 95g CO2 per km cap in vehicle emissions by 2020.11This will require most automobile manufacturers in Europe to reduce their fleet emissions by almost 30% over the next five years.12To support this transition, the EU has offered generous incentives for automobile companies to introduce electric vehicles to the market.13Compared to Europe, the United States national-level EV promotion efforts put greater stress on the benefits to energy security. In 2011, U.S. President Barack Obama announced support for EV adoption in the form of grants and tax incentives, emphasizing EVs potential to reduce Americas reliance on oil from politically turbulent areas in the Middle East.14However, local policy support in California, Americas largest EV market, is largely driven by environmental concerns similar to those in Europe. The states Air Resources Board mandates that a certain percentage of vehicles sold in California each year have no tailpipe emissions, a policy that the Board sees as a key component for maintaining the states air quality.15California has also adopted statewide climate legislation with long-term GHG emissions targets, and state planners expect that in order to meet these targets, the state will need to electrify the majority of its passenger vehicle fleet by 2050.16Similar to the U.S., South Koreas motivation for promoting EVs stems from a mix of energy security and 9. “Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe” Official Journal of the European Union. Available at bit.ly/1UE8GKY. 10. Amsterdam Roundtable Foundation and McKinsey & Company. “Electric Vehicles In Europe: Gearing Up For A New Phase?” April 2014. Page 14. Available at bit.ly/1dMwqsM. 11. “REGULATION (EC) No 443/2009 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 23 April 2009 setting emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of the Communitys integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles.” Official Journal of the European Union. Available at bit.ly/1PH1IfF. 12. Ibid at footnote 10. Page 14.13. International Council on Clean Transportation. “CO2emissions from new passenger cars in the EU: Car manufacturers performance in 2014.” July 2015. Page 10. Available at bit.ly/1Or9V9I. 14. U. S. Department of Energy. “One Million Electric Vehicles By 2015: February 2011 Status Report.” Page 2. 1.usa. gov/1TNbD9f 15. California Air Resources Board. “Zero-Emission Vehicle Legal and Regulatory Activities and Background.” Available at bit. ly/233QFH6. 16. Williams et al. “The Technology Path to Deep Greenhouse Gas Emissions Cuts by 2050: The Pivotal Role of Electricity.” Science. January 6, 2012. Page 53. Available at bit.ly/1U81juA. climate concerns. The country hopes to cut its transportation emissions by over a third in order to comply with a CO2emission reduction target of 30% by 2020.17Korea also has scarce domestic fuel resources and relies on imports for almost all of its crude oil.18South Koreas “Low Carbon Green Growth” policy, introduced in 2009, attempts to address both of these issues by promoting the uptake of EVs in the transportation sector, with an initial target of replacing 10% of its passenger car fleet with EVs by 2015.1917. “South Korea confirms 30% carbon reduction target by 2020.” Climate Home. January 31, 2014. Available at bit.ly/1TXWG3W. 18. Energy Information Agency webpage on South Korea. Available at 1.usa.gov/1RPzEbh. 19. Presidential Commission on Green Growth website. Available at greengrowth.go.kr/m
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