城市生物循环（英文版）.pdf

URBAN BIOCYCLES3 Glossary 6 Executive Summary 7 The biocycle economy 10 The significance of the biocycle economy 10 Pressures on the biocycle economy 11 Disrupted nutrient flows 11 Cities as concentrators of organic resources 13 Unrecovered organic streams 13 The circular economy vision how to close the nutrient loops 16 The biocycle in a circular economy 16 Recovering organic waste in cities 17 Returning nutrients to the soil 18 Generating bioenergy 22 A comprehensive approach: Biorefineries 24 Conclusion 28 About the Ellen MacArthur Foundation 30 Bibliography 31 URBAN BIOCYCLES Ellen MacArthur Foundation, March 2017URBAN BIOCYCLES 4 BIOCYCLE ECONOMY The aim of this scoping paper is to present an initial exploration of the circular economy opportunities for the biocycle economy. It represents the first step towards a deeper understanding enabled by a more comprehensive analysis. The term biocycle in the context of this paper is distinct and separate from BioCycle, The Organics Recycling Authority, published since 1960 (). DISCLAIMER This paper was produced by a team from the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, which takes full responsibility for the papers contents and conclusions. While the project participants and experts consulted have provided significant input to the development of this paper, their participation does not necessarily imply endorsement of its contents or conclusions. PROJECT MAINSTREAM The World Economic Forum and the Ellen MacArthur Foundation launched Project MainStream in 2014. This multi-industry, global initiative serves as the umbrella for this paper. The project is led by the chief executive officers of seven global companies: Averda, Tarkett, Royal DSM, Ecolab, Philips, Suez, and Veolia. Project MainStream aims to accelerate business-driven innovations and help scale the circular economy (building awareness of it, and increasing impact and implementation). It focuses on systemic stalemates in global material flows that are too big or too complex for an individual business, city or government to overcome alone, as well as on enablers of the circular economy, such as digital technologies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Special thanks go to the Project MainStream Steering Board members and the experts from academia, industry and non-governmental organisations for their active involvement and contributions made to this paper. PROJECT MAINSTREAM STEERING BOARD Jean-Louis Chaussade, Chief Executive Officer, Suez (Steering Board Chairman) Antoine Frerot, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Veolia Douglas Baker Jr., Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Ecolab Feike Sijbesma, Chief Executive Officer and Chairman of the Managing Board, Royal DSM Frans van Houten, President and Chief Executive Officer, Philips Malek Sukkar, Chief Executive Officer, Averda Michel Giannuzzi, Chief Executive Officer, Tarkett5 PROJECT TEAM Ellen MacArthur Foundation Andrew Morlet, Chief Executive Dale Walker, Project Manager (Lead Author) Nick Jeffries, Research Manager Aurelien Susnjara, Research Analyst Sarah Churchill-Slough, Designer Lena Gravis, Editor Ian Banks, Editor World Economic Forum Dominic Waughray, Head of Public Private Partnership, Member of the Executive Committee Antonia Gawel, Lead, Circular Economy Attila Turos, Project Lead, Future of Production EXPERT INPUT AND CASE STUDY CONTRIBUTORS Biomimicry 3.8 Janine Benyus, Co-Founder Biopolus Technologies Frank Marton, Chief Commercial Officer Desso Rudi Daelmans, Sustainability Director The Ecala Group Joshua Foss, President Elemental Impact Holly D. Elmore, Founder and CEO Il Bioeconomista Mario Bonaccorso, Founder and Editor in Chief Institute for Local Self Reliance Brenda Platt, Co-Director International Resource Panel Janez Potocnik, Co-Chair Ostara Nutrient Recovery Technologies Phillip Abrary, Co-Founder, President and CEO Debra Hadden, Vice President, Marketing and Communications Peats Soil and Garden Supplies Peter Wadewitz, Managing Director Royal DSM Jeff Turner, Vice President Sustainability Inge Massen-Biemans, Global Director Business Communications and External Affairs Science and Innovation SLM Partners Paul McMahon, Co-Founder and Managing Partner Suez Henry Saint Bris, Senior Vice President Marketing and Institutional Relations Frederic Grivel, Vice President Marketing Laurent Galtier, Development Director Veolia Gary Crawford, Vice President International Affairs Wageningen UR Johan Sanders, Emeritus Professor of Biobased Chemistry and TechnologyURBAN BIOCYCLES 6 GLOSSARY Anaerobic digestion: A series of biological processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. One of the end products is biogas, which is combusted to generate electricity and heat, or can be processed into renewable natural gas and transportation fuels. Bioeconomy: Encompasses the production of renewable biological resources and their conversion into food, feed, bio-based products and bioenergy via industrial biotechnology. Bioenergy: Energy derived from biomass, either as a solid fuel, or processed into liquids and gases. Technologies to generate heat and power include solid wood heating installations for buildings, biogas digesters for power generation, and large-scale biomass gasification plants for heat and power. Includes biofuels. Biofuel: Any liquid or gaseous hydrocarbon fuel produced from biomass in a short time, i.e. not over geological time as with fossil fuels, and used as a transportation fuel. Biomass: The biodegradable fraction of products, waste and residues of biological origin from agriculture (including vegetal and animal substances), forestry, fisheries and aquaculture, as well as the biodegradable fraction of industrial and municipal waste. Includes bioliquids and biofuels. Biorefinery: A facility (or network of facilities) that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce biofuels, power, and chemicals. The concept is analogous to an oil refinery, which produces multiple fuels and other products from crude oil. Negative externality: A cost borne by a third party as a result of an economic transaction. This includes any individual, organisation, or resource that is indirectly affected by an activity. Pollution is an obvious example of a negative externality. Nutrient: A substance that provides nourishment essential for the maintenance of life and for growth7 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This scoping paper focuses on the potential of the significant volume of organic waste flowing through the urban environment. The aim is to highlight the opportunities to capture value, in the form of the energy, nutrients and materials embedded in these flows, through the application of circular economy principles. Organic waste - from the organic fraction of municipal solid waste streams and wastewater that flows through sewage systems - is traditionally seen as a costly problem in economic and environmental terms. This scoping paper will explore the idea that the equation can be reversed by designing more effective recovery and processing systems to turn organic waste into a source of value and contribute to restoring natural capital.URBAN BIOCYCLES 8 Every year, people harvest roughly 13 billion tonnes of biomass globally to use as food, energy and materials. This biomass flows through the biocycle economy, as it is referred to in this scoping paper. This part of the economy includes industries that deal with biological materials at different stages of the value chain: for example, agriculture, forestry and fishing at the primary stage; food processing, textile manufacturing and biotechnology in the processing stage; and retail and resource management in the consumption stage. Together, they generate a global value of approximately USD 12.5 trillion, equivalent (in 2013) to 17% of global gross domestic product (GDP). The biocycle economys share of the overall economy is much larger in emerging markets, where the majority of growth in per capita consumption is expected. In this context, the volume of biomass flowing through the global economy is set to grow: notably, by 2050, global demand for food is expected to rise by approximately 55%. While such parameters offer considerable commercial and trade opportunities, they also involve numerous challenges. These include significant structural waste in the biocycle economy (about a third of 1 FAO, Global Food Losses and Food WasteExtent, Causes and Prevention 2 United Nations (2012) 3 Circle Economy, TNO and FABRIC all food produced globally is lost or wasted), as well as natural capital losses and negative environmental externalities. The volume of greenhouse gas emissions produced by global food waste is ranked third behind China and the US. 1 Land degradation affects roughly one quarter of land globally and costs USD 40 billion per year. 2 Eutrophication, or the accumulation of nutrients caused by surface run-off and the resulting overgrowth of plant life, has created aquatic dead zones all around the world. At the same time, the economic opportunities are significant. The World Economic Forum estimates that potential global revenues from the biomass value chain comprising the production of agricultural inputs, biomass trading and biorefinery outputs could be as high as USD 295 billion by 2020. Cities, the new powerhouses already generating over 80% of global GDP, will play a major role in addressing challenges and realising opportunities in the biocycle economy. As major concentrators of materials and nutrients, cities aggregate inputs such as food from rural areas into a concentrated urban space. Today, almost none of these materials are looped back into the biosphere, meaning that rural soils are becoming degraded and rely increasingly on synthetic fertilisers, which also creates nutrient imbalances. In theory, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) nutrients recovered from food, animal and human waste streams on a global scale could contribute nearly 2.7 times the nutrients contained within the volumes of chemical fertiliser currently used. Cities produce about 1.3 billion tonnes of solid waste per year, roughly half of which is organic. This figure is expected to almost double by 2025, with 70% of the total likely to be generated in emerging markets. According to a recent study on residual organic waste in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, high value processing could lead to added value of EUR 150 million, as well as 900,000 tonnes of material savings and a reduction of 600,000 tonnes in CO 2 emissions annually for the city. 3 These benefits can be generated using biorefineries, waste separation and return logistics, cascading organic flows and nutrient recovery. Some cities have implemented programmes to recover and valorise organic materials, such as those found in food waste and wastewater streams.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9 The volumes of recovered material vary greatly. Milan, Italy now has high rates of recovery, which it uses to generate revenue by producing energy and compost, the decayed organic material used as a fertiliser. Many cities, however, are achieving only low levels of recovery, representing a notable lost opportunity as well as impacting human and environmental health. Producing concentrated NPK fertilisers is one way of recovering nutrients from organic waste streams, as is using biosolids as compost. Nutrient recovery is attractive as a source of revenue and, importantly, as a contributor to ecosystem regeneration. Energy recovery from organic waste can offset operational costs, generate revenue, increase the share of renewables in the energy mix and reduce GHG emissions. Anaerobic digestion is the most widely adopted technology in this area and can be applied to a wide range of organic materials to generate biogas, leaving a nutrient-rich substance called digestate. The biogas can either be fed to the gas grid or converted to electricity using conventional thermal power processes. Recovering energy in the wastewater sector is attractive, as it can offset the energy required for treatment. In the best example of this, a plant in Denmark has managed to produce more electricity than it needs for its operations, making it a net exporter of power. Significant opportunity exists to use organic waste material to manufacture a range of products and materials traditionally derived from fossil fuel sources. Biorefineries could be a central technology in this endeavour. Operating in a similar way to petrochemical refineries, they employ a range of techniques such as thermal treatment, biological processes and enzymatic conversions to transform organic feedstock into valuable chemicals and products. Biorefineries have many feedstock options available, spanning solid organic waste and waste water. The options are categorised as first generation (food-based) and second generation (non-food-based), with the latter being particularly attractive as they complement food production rather than compete with it. The technology is rapidly evolving and as it matures, biorefineries will produce more and more complex chemicals and materials. Succinic acid and polylactic acid (both useful precursors for fuels and lubricants) are already being produced. It is increasingly evident that organic waste can be used to produce competitive alternatives to resources derived from fossil fuels. Several barriers need to be overcome to shift the system towards one aligned with circular economy principles. These include regulatory barriers such as inconsistent and ill-fitting definitions of waste, and economic hurdles, including the absence of accurate externality pricing which tilt the field towards incumbent systems, rather than levelling it for biologically derived materials and energy. Overcoming such barriers will further enable the technological advances required to realise the economic opportunities. Clearly, there is a high-level opportunity to capture value and increase the contribution of urban biocycles to building natural capital. However, this paper demonstrates the need for further analysis. What is required is no less than the following: to develop the baseline understanding of the urban organic landscape as well as quantify the opportunity; to quantify the private-sector opportunities; to identify the systemic solutions that enable the economic use of recovered nutrients; and finally, to highlight the regulatory levers needed to develop new markets in organic materials.URBAN BIOCYCLES 10 THE BIOCYCLE ECONOMY 4 Natural Capital Coalition 5 Center for Advanced Studies on Applied Economics, University of So Paulo, and Brazilian Confederation of Agriculture and Livestock, Ellen MacArthur Foundation, A Circular Economy In Brazil: An Initial Exploration (2017) 6 European Commission (2012) The bioeconomy, or the biocycle economy as it is referred to in this scoping paper, includes industries that deal with biological materials at different stages of the value chain. Such industries inclu