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2020 United Nations Environment Programme This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit services without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Communication Division, UNEP, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya. Disclaimers: The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. For general guidance on matters relating to the use of maps in publications please go to: un/Depts/Cartographic/english/htmain.htm Mention of a commercial company or product in this publication does not imply endorsement by UNEP. The use of information from this publication concerning proprietary products for publicity or advertising is not permitted. Trademark names and symbols are used in an editorial fashion with no intention on infringement of trademark or copyright laws. UNEP has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Maps, photos, and illustrations as specified. Production Economy Division United Nations Environment Programme P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, 00100, Kenya Tel: (+254) 20 7621234 ISBN: 978-92-807-3804-9 Job no.: DTI/2302/NAAcknowledgements This report is authored by the Sustainable Mobility Unit of the United Nations Environment Programme. Staff members involved in its production include Ms. Ariadne Baskin, Mr. Rob de Jong, Ms. Elisa Dumitrescu, Ms. Jane Akumu, Ms. Veronica Ruiz Stannah, Mr. Amos Mwangi, Ms Fatou Diabate, Mr. Luis Felipe Quirama and Mr. George Maina. We wish to thank external reviewers, the members of the Used Vehicles Working Group of the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles, Mr David Ward, Secretary General of the global NCAP (New Cars Assessment Programme), and Ms. Marietta Harjono, of the Human Environment and Transport Inspectorate of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management, of The NetherlandsUSED VEHICLES AND THE ENVIRONMENT ii Table of contents Glossary v Key findings 2 Introduction 10 Chapter 1: Supply Chain and Scale of Used Vehicles Flows 18 1.1 Global Supply of Used Light-Duty Vehicles 19 1.2 Supply and Demand of Used Vehicles 24 1.2.1 European Union (EU) 25 1.2.2 Japan 26 1.2.3 United States of America (USA) 28 1.3 Global Supply of Used Heavy-Duty Vehicles 31 Chapter 2: Regulatory Environment for Used Vehicles 34 2.1 Used LDV Importing Country Policies 35 2.1.1 Used Vehicle Import Bans 37 2.1.2 Age Limit 39 2.1.3 Vehicle Emission Standards 41 2.1.4 Fiscal Instruments 44 2.1.5 Selective Bans 46 2.1.6 Communication Instruments: Vehicle Labelling 47 2.2 Combining the Different Policies 48 2.3 Global Trade in Hybrid Electric and Electric Vehicles 52 2.4 Safety Standards 58 Chapter 3: Case studies 62 3.1.1 Characteristics of Kenyas Vehicle Imports 63 3.1.2 Key Requirements of Used Vehicle Imports 67 3.1.3 Comparison Kenya, Uganda, and Rwanda 68 3.2 Export Case Study: the Netherlands 70 3.2.1 Characteristics of Netherlands Export to Africa 70 3.2.2 Key Findings of Used Exports Review 71 3.2.3 Findings of Field Inspection 76 3.3 Impact of Used Vehicles Policies Case study: Mauritius 78 Annex 1: Information Used in this Report 83 Annex 2: Vehicle Emissions, the Environment and Human Health 85 Annex 3: Country Lists 87 References 92iii Table of figures FIGURE 1 Growth of the Global Light Duty Vehicle Fleet 2000 to 2050 OECD vs non-OECD (IEA 2017) 12 FIGURE 2 Share of Used Light-Duty Vehicle Exports from the EU, USA, and Japan, 2015-2018 20 FIGURE 3 Share of Used Light-Duty Vehicle Exports from Japan, EU, and USA to Africa, Asia-Pacific, EECCA, LAC, Middle East between 2015-2018 21 FIGURE 4 Distribution of Used Light-Duty Vehicle Exports from the EU, USA, and Japan, 2018 21 FIGURE 5 Share of Used Light Duty Vehicle Exports Headed to Countries Based on their Economies by Per Capita GNI, 2015-2018 24 FIGURE 6 Share of Used Heavy-Duty Vehicle Exports from Japan and the EU, 2015-2018 31 FIGURE 7 Categorization of Import Regulations Adopted by Countries and analyzed to Regulate the Importation of Used Vehicles in 2017 36 FIGURE 8 New Zealands Used Vehicle Fuel Economy Label 48 FIGURE 9 Used Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Exports from the EU and Japan, 2017-2018 53 FIGURE 10 Example of Used Electric Nissan Leaf for Sale Online in Japan 53 FI G U R E 11 First Registration of Vehicles by Fuel Type from 2008 2018 in Sri Lanka 54 FIGURE 12 Newly Registered Vehicles in Mongolia by Fuel Type, 2012-2016 57 FIGURE 13 Annual LDV Registrations in Kenya 64 FIGURE 14 Split of Vehicles by Powertrain and Split of Vehicles by Engine Size (2016) 65 FIGURE 15 Age Profile of Newly Registered Vehicles in 2015 66 FIGURE 16 Stakeholders in the Used Vehicle Market Kenya 68 FIGURE 17 African Destinations of Dutch Used Vehicles Exports 71 FIGURE 18 Age and Roadworthiness Status of Used Vehicles Exported from The Netherlands 2017-2018 72 FIGURE 19 Vehicle Emissions Standards of Used Petrol Vehicles Exported from the Netherlands to West Africa in 2017-2018 75 FIGURE 20 Number of Electric Vehicles in Mauritius 79 FIGURE 21 Number of Hybrid Vehicles in Mauritius 80 FIGURE 22 European Vehicle Emissions Standards 86 FIGURE 23 Timelines for Vehicles Emissions Standards Implementation in the US, EU, and China 86USED VEHICLES AND THE ENVIRONMENT iv List of tables TABLE 1 Top Markets for Used Light Duty Vehicle Exports from the Three Major Global Exporters in 2018 23 TABLE 2 Top 10 Importing Countries, out of the 146 Analysed in this Report, of Used Light Duty Vehicles from the EU, 2015 to 2018 26 TABLE 3 Top Ten Destinations, out of the 146 Analysed in this Report, for Vehicle Exports from Japan, 2015 -2018 27 TABLE 4 Top 10 Markets, out of the 146 Analysed in this Report, for Used Passenger Vehicle Exports from the US, 2013- 2018 28 TABLE 5 Market Value for Used Passenger Vehicle Exports from the USA, 2013- 2018 29 TABLE 6 Top 10 Importers of Japanese Used HDVs, 2015-2018 32 TABLE 7 Used Vehicles Import Age Limit per country 40 TABLE 8 Light Duty Vehicles Emission vs Importation of Used Vehicles 42 TABLE 9 Mean Age at New Vehicle Registrations in Zimbabwe (GFEI 2017) 46 TABLE 10 Regulatory Environment Ranking 49 TA B L E 11 Used Vehicle Regulatory Environment Rankings (July 2020) 50 TABLE 12 Exports of Used Hybrids and EVs from the EU 56 TABLE 13 Exports of Used Hybrids and EVs (together) from Japan 56 TABLE 14 Total Light Duty Vehicle Registrations 64 TABLE 15 Average Used Vehicle Import Age by Fuel Type and Engine Capacity in Uganda 69 TABLE 16 Estimated Fuel Consumption and CO 2 Emissions of Vehicles in Three East African Countries 69 List of maps MAP 1 Used Light Duty Vehicles Quantity and Flow to Main Destination Markets from the EU, USA, and Japan (2017) 22 MAP 2 Used Vehicle Import Bans (July 2020) 37 MAP 3 Used Light Duty Vehicle Import Age Limits (July 2020) 39 MAP 4 Light Duty Vehicle Emission Standards (Euro) (July 2020) 41 MAP 5 Diesel Fuel Sulphur Levels: Global Status 44 MAP 6 Used Light Duty Vehicle Regulatory Environment (July 2020) 49v Glossary OFFICIAL COUNTRY NAMES Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Republic of Albania Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria Republic of Angola Antigua and Barbuda Republic of Argentina Republic of Armenia Commonwealth of Australia Republic of Azerbaijan Commonwealth of the Bahamas Kingdom of Bahrain Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Barbados Republic of Belarus Belize Republic of Benin Kingdom of Bhutan Plurinational State of Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Republic of Botswana Federative Republic of Brazil Negara Brunei Darussalam Republic of Bulgaria Burkina Faso Republic of Burundi Kingdom of Cambodia Republic of Cameroon Canada Republic of Cabo Verde Central African Republic Republic of Chad Republic of Chile Peoples Republic of China Republic of Colombia Union of the Comoros Republic of Congo Republic of Costa Rica Republic of Cte dIvoire Republic of Cuba Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of Djibouti Commonwealth of Dominica Dominican Republic Republic of Ecuador Arab Republic of Egypt Republic of El Salvador Republic of Equatorial Guinea State of Eritrea Kingdom of Eswatini Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Republic of the Fiji Islands Gabonese Republic (Gabon) Republic of the Gambia Georgia Federal Republic of Germany Republic of Ghana Grenada Republic of Guatemala Republic of Guinea Republic of Guinea-Bissau Co-operative Republic of Guyana Republic of Haiti Republic of Honduras Republic of India Republic of Indonesia Islamic Republic of Iran Republic of Iraq State of Israel Jamaica Japan Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Republic of Kazakhstan Republic of Kenya State of Kuwait Kyrgyz Republic (Kyrgyzstan) Lao Peoples Democratic Republic Lebanese Republic (Lebanon) Kingdom of Lesotho Republic of Liberia State of Libya Republic of Madagascar Republic of Malawi Malaysia Republic of Maldives Republic of Mali Islamic Republic of MauritaniaUSED VEHICLES AND THE ENVIRONMENT vi Republic of Mauritius United Mexican States (Mexico) Mongolia Montenegro Kingdom of Morocco Republic of Mozambique Republic of the Union of Myanmar Republic of Namibia Republic of Nauru Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal Kingdom of the Netherlands New Zealand Republic of Nicaragua Republic of the Niger Federal Republic of Nigeria Republic of North Macedonia Sultanate of Oman Islamic Republic of Pakistan Republic of Palau Republic of Panama Independent State of Papua New Guinea Republic of Paraguay Republic of Peru Republic of the Philippines Republic of Poland State of Qatar Republic of Korea Republic of Moldova Russian Federation (Russia) Republic of Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Independent State of Samoa Democratic Republic of Sao Tome and Principe Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Republic of Senegal Republic of Serbia Republic of Seychelles Republic of Sierra Leone Republic of Singapore Slovak Republic (Slovakia) Federal Republic of Somalia Republic of South Africa Republic of South Sudan Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka Republic of the Sudan Republic of Suriname Republic of Tajikistan Kingdom of Thailand Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste Togolese Republic (Togo) Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Republic of Tunisia Republic of Turkey Turkmenistan Republic of Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland United Republic of Tanzania United States of America Eastern Republic of Uruguay Republic of Uzbekistan Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela Socialist Republic of Viet Nam Republic of Zambia Republic of Zimbabwe NON-SELF- GOVERNING TERRITORIES Bermuda Turks and Caicos Islands OTHER TERRITORIES MENTIONED Aruba French Guyana This glossary provides the official names of various countries and territories mentioned in this reportviiKey findingsUSED VEHICLES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 3 The report makes the following key findings: The global fleet of light duty vehicles (LDVs) is set to at least double by 2050. Some 90 per cent of this growth will take place in non-OECD countries which import a large number of used vehicles. Despite the critical role they play in road accidents, air pollution, and efforts to mitigate climate change there are currently no regional or global agreements on the trade and flow in used vehicles. The three largest exporters of used vehicles, the European Union (EU), Japan, and the United States of America (USA), exported 14 million used light duty vehicles (LDVs) worldwide between 2015 and 2018. The EU was the largest exporter with 54 per cent of the total followed by Japan (27 per cent) and the USA (18 per cent). The major destinations for used vehicles from the EU are West and North Africa; Japan exports mainly to Asia and East and Southern Africa and the USA mainly to the Middle East and Central America. Seventy per cent of exported LDVs head to developing countries. Africa imported the largest number (40 per cent) in the period studied followed by Eastern Europe (24 per cent), Asia-Pacific (15 per cent), the Middle East (12 per cent) and Latin America (nine per cent). Key concerns are: pollutant and climate emissions of used vehicles; the quality and safety of used vehicles; energy consumption; and the costs to operate used vehicles. This trade needs to be supervised. Regulation is essential to ensure the quality of the vehicles and reduce (urban) air pollution and global climate emissions. Source: UNEP , based on data collected from major exporters, 2017Key findings 4 Most developing countries have limited or no regulations on governing the quality and safety of imported used vehicles and rules which do exist are often poorly enforced. Equally, few developed countries have restrictions on the export of used vehicles. Regulations can take many forms from complete import bans to age restrictions, fiscal incentives, labelling and awareness requirements. Regulations reduce imports of old and polluting used vehicles, and encourage the imports of cleaner used vehicles, including very low and no emissions vehicles. Out of the 146 countries surveyed in the report, 18 have adopted a complete ban on the import of used vehicles. While bans prevents old and polluting used vehicles from entering markets, they can also reduce the affordable access to advanced technology - especially where new vehicles are imported or produced under weak vehicles standards and policy regimes. Many countries block the import of used vehicles not (only) for environment and safety reasons but also to protect their own manufacturing industry. Of the 146 countries studied, 66 limit the age on imported vehicles. These age restrictions are popular partly because they can be easily enforced. They tend to vary from three to 15 years. Few countries have adopted advanced vehicle emissions standards for used vehicles. From the 146 countries studied, 28 have adopted vehicles emissions standards and 100 countries have no vehicles emissions standards at all. The remainder have banned used vehicles imports. Fiscal instruments can be an effective means to regulate the import of used vehicles. Examples are age-based taxation, progressive excise tax based
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